BOOK

VOCABULARY AND CONTENT:  In applied linguistics, rhetoric

ADVERBIALS

Types of adverbials

Adverbials are typically divided into four classes:
1. Adverbial complements (i.e. obligatory adverbial) are adverbials that render a sentence ungrammatical and meaningless if removed: John put the flowers in the water.
2. Adjuncts: These are part of the core meaning of the sentence, but if omitted still leave a meaningful sentence: John and Sophia helped me with my homework.
3. Conjuncts: These link two sentences together; John helped; therefore, I was able to do my homework.
  
Disjuncts: These make comments on the meaning of the rest of the sentence; an adverbial word or phrase that indicates the writer’s opinion or judgement of the action or description that it modifies: Surprisingly, he passed all of his exams. Examples:

Honestly, I didn't do it. (Meaning "I'm honest when I say I didn't do it" rather than "I didn't do it in an honest way."); Fortunately (for you), ... ; Frankly, ... ;  Interestingly, ... ; Luckily, Clearly ... ; Unfortunately, ... ; Sadly, ...

Conjuncts (Linking adverbials), aka conjunctive adverb

A conjunct, from the Latin, "join together," is a word, phrase, or clause linked to another word, phrase, or clause through coordination, aka conjoin. The more traditional term for this kind of adverbial is conjunctive adverb. In linguistics, a conjunct is an adjunct that supplements a sentence with information, connecting the sentence with previous parts of the discourse. Not considered to be an essential part of the propositional content.
As with adjuncts, there are different ways of using conjuncts:

addition – also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more
opposition – however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary.
reinforcing – besides, anyway, after all
explaining – for example, in other words, that is to say
listing – first(ly), first of all, to begin with, First ... Second, ... Third, ... , next, finally, to sum up.
indicating result – therefore, consequently, as a result
indicating time – just then, meanwhile, later, in the meantime
EXAMPLES
 
4. DISJUNCTS
In English grammar, a disjunct is a type of sentence adverb that comments on the content or manner of what is being said or written. Put another way, a disjunct is a word or phrase that explicitly expresses the stance of a speaker or writer. Also called a sentence adjunct or sentence modifier.

4.1. MODAL DISJUNCTS provide information about the certainty, limitations, and sources of the content of the clause. As the name suggests, in terms of meaning, they are similar to modal auxiliary verbs, and sometimes either a construction with a modal auxiliary or one with a modal disjunct can be used to convey the same meaning. Compare the following pair of sentences.

(1) The results may have been affected by the design of the experiment.
(2) Maybe/Perhaps the design of the experiment affected the results.

Here, the first sentence uses a modal auxiliary to express the likelihood of the results having been affected by the design of the experiment, whereas the second sentence uses a modal disjunct (maybe or perhaps).
The following table lists some modal disjuncts along with definitions.

arguably 'as may be shown by argument; certainly 'without fail, unfailingly, infallibly'; obviously Clearly, in a way that is easy to understand or see; undoubtedly 'without or beyond any doubt'; apparently so far as it appears from the evidence; so far as one can judge; in fact 'in reality'

In terms of meaning, modal disjuncts may be further subdivided. Thus, we may distinguish the following types (the examples given are mostly adverbs, but other forms (prepositional phrases, clauses) can also be used:

Expressing certainty or conviction
certainly, clearly, decidedly, definitely, indisputably, surely, unarguably, undeniably, unquestionably
 
Expressing some degree of doubt or contrast with reality
arguably, conceivably, (quite) likely, seemingly, hypothetically, ideally, nominally, superficially, technically, theoretically
 
Attributing claims to sources of knowledge
allegedly, apparently, evidently, reportedly, reputedly, according to X.

4.2. ATTITUDINAL DISJUNCTS - convey the speaker/writer's evaluation of what is said.

Weiner correctly claims that Frege believed that knowledge is language dependent.
Smith incorrectly claims that nothing was done to stop the spread of malaria in the first few months after the flood.
The first results unexpectedly showed that the veins were, in fact, visible when infrared photography was used.
Predictably, more striking results were obtained when the mice were subjected to repeated exposure over several days.
Preferably, such interference should be kept to minimum to avoid contamination of the data.

EXAMPLES

Dangling-modifier clauses

As an adjunct, a modifier clause is normally at the beginning or the end of a sentence, and usually attached to the subject of the main clause, as in "Walking down the street (clause), the man (subject) saw the beautiful trees (object).


ADVERBIAL INFINITIVE

The infinitive as adverbial modifier.

The infinitive can be used as an adverbial modifier of: purpose, subsequent events, consequence, attendant circumstances, comparison, condition, exception, time, cause, or motivation. In all these functions but that of the adverbial modifier of exception, a “to”- infinitive is used.

1. The adverbial modifier of purpose. In this function the action denoted by the infinitive is always a hypothetical one following the action denoted by the predicate. As such it can be expressed only by non-perfect common aspect forms of the infinitive (both active and passive):

I think I will go to England to improve my English.

We stood in the rain and were taken out one at a time to be questioned and shot.

In this function a “to”- infinitive is used, but if there are two or more homogeneous adverbials of purpose joined by and, usually, though not necessarily, only the first of them has the particle to. Compare the following sentences:

Mary, looking pale and worried, left him to go down to the kitchen and start breakfast.

Then I went upstairs to say how-do-you-do to Emily, and into the kitchen to shake hands with Mary-Ann, and out into the garden to see the gardener.

The position of the infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of purpose varies. It usually stands after the predicate, though the position at the beginning of the sentence is also possible:

To occupy her mind, however, she took the job given her.

In both positions the infinitive may be preceded by the conjunction in order, so as or by limiting particle (just, only):

I keep a diary in order to enter the wonderful secrets of my life.

In order to see her better he had to turn his head.

I’m here just to see you off.

He came down only to say good-night to you.

2. The adverbial modifier of subsequent events. In this function the infinitive denotes an action that follows the one denoted by the predicate. The position of this adverbial in the sentence is fixed - it always follows the predicate. The only forms of the infinitive occurring in this function are those of the non-perfect common aspect, usually active.

He arrived at three o’clock to hear that Fleur had gone out with the car at ten. (He arrived and heard ...)

I came down one morning to find Papa excited to the point of apoplexy. (I came down and found ...)

He hurried to the house only to find it empty. (He hurried and found ...)

In this function the infinitive may be preceded by the particles only, merely, simply, which change the meaning of the whole sentence: the action denoted by the infinitive preceded by these particles makes the action de­noted by the predicate pointless or irrelevant.

She returned to London in a few days, only to learn that Bess had gone to the continent. (She returned ...,

and learnt...)

3. As an adverbial modifier of consequence the infinitive depends on a) adjectives and adverbs modified by too; b) adjectives, adverbs and nouns modified by enough; c) adjectives modified by so, and nouns modified by such. In the last two cases the infinitive is introduced by as:

1. Не was too tired to argue. (= He was so fired, that is why he couldn’t arque)

The story was too interesting to be passed over lightly.

He had gone too far to draw back.

b) He’s old enough to learn this. (= He is old enough, so he can learn this)

I thought I liked Letty well enough to marry her. (=1 liked Letty, so I wanted to marry her)

He was fool enough to enjoy the game.

He had seen enough blasted, burned out tanks to have no illusions.

c) She was so kind as to accept my proposal. (= She was so kind, therefore she accepted my proposal)

Do you think I am such a fool as to let it out of my hands?

In all these cases the infinitive denotes an action, which would become or became possible (enough, so, such) or impossible (too) due to the degree of quality or quantity expressed in the words it refers to.

The position of the infinitive is fixed, it always follows the words it modifies. The form of the infinitive is non-perfect, common aspect, usu­ally active. .

4. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances shows what other actions take place at the same time as the action of the predicate.

He left the house never to come back.

I am sorry to have raised your expectations only to disappoint you.

The infinitive thus used always follows the predicate verb it modifies. As to its form, it is a non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form.

5. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of comparison refers to predicate groups including adjectives or adverbs in the comparative degree. The infinitive itself is introduced by than:

To give is more blessed than to receive.

Soon she realized, that it was much more pleasant to give than to be given.

He knew better than to rely on her.

Although the infinitive of comparison is generally used with to, it may also occur without it:

I was more inclined to see her safely married than go on watching over her.

6. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of condition denotes an action which pre-conditions the action expressed by the predicate.

To look at Montmorency you would imagine that he was an angel sent upon earth ... (If you looked ...,

you would imagine ...)

To touch it one would believe that it was the best of furs. (If one touched it, one would believe ...)

I’ll thank you to take your hands off me. (I’ll thank you, if you take ...)

The position of this infinitive as can be seen from the examples above varies; it may either precede or follow the predicate verb it modifies. The only possible form of the infinitive is the non-perfect, common aspect, active voice form.

7. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of exception denotes the action which is the only possible one in the situation. The infinitive is generally used without to and is introduced by the prepositions but and except. It is found in negative and interrogative sentences:

I had nothing to do but wait.

What could I do but submit?

There is nothing to do except turn back.

8. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of time denotes an action which marks out the moment of time up to which or at which the action of the predicate is performed. Very often it has a secondary meaning of condition.

His father lived to be ninety. (lived till he was ...)

I may not live to reach the airstrip this afternoon. (may not live till I reach ...)

Go away! I shudder to see you here. (I shudder when I see ..., if I see ...)

The position of the infinitive is fixed, it always follows the predicate it modifies. Its form is non-perfect, common aspect, active.

9. The infinitive used as an adverbial modifier of cause or motivation refers to a compound nominal predicate with the predicative expressed by an adjective, a noun, or a prepositional phrase denoting someone's qualities (intellectual qualities, morals, etc.)

The infinitive denotes an action which serves as a cause or a motiva­tion on which this or that charaterisation is based.

What an idiot I was not to have thought of it before! (I had not thought of it before, therefore I can justly

be called an idiot.)

She was silly to come here. (She came here, and it was silly of her.)

They’re out of their mind to have sent you here! (They have sent you here, so one can think them out of

their minds.)

The infinitive in this function follows the predicate. All the forms of the infinitive are possible.

only to see, but to, 11 cases tablet   

ANTICIPATORY "IT"
It is sometimes used to "anticipate" something which appears later in the same sentence: 

It's great to see you; It's a pity you can't come to my party.

See also: Cleft Sentences 

CLEFT SENTENCES (REPHRASING FOR EMPHASIS)

Pseudo-cleft sentences


COLLOCATIONS

CONJUNCTIONS

You can't just turn love on and off.

You can't just turn love on and off.
Read more at: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/shania_twain_479296

Emphatic conjunctions

DISCOURSE MARKERS 

Sentence starters 

Fillers
Don’t sound boring – use discourse markers to improve your English!

A quick way to make sure your English isn’t repetitive is to vary the discourse markers or ‘fillers’ you use when you speak. Words or sounds like ‘basically’, ‘well’, and ‘hmm’ can be ‘fillers’. They can have a vague meaning or no meaning at all when used in conversation.

We all use fillers to buy us time time while we are thinking of what to say next. It’s a natural part of most languages, but if we use the same one too often, it starts to sound boring and repetitive.

Mine was ‘so’ and every time I said it for the next week, all my students laughed and told me to stop.
Once you’ve identified your most common discourse markers, make a conscious effort not to use them. Instead, you can use some of these alternatives.
Instead of repeating ‘I mean’, try using ‘What I’m trying to say is..’, ‘My point is…’, or ‘What I’m getting at is…’.
‘Of course’ is another discourse marker that some people overuse. Try ‘Obviously…’ or ‘It’s clear that…’ instead. Remember, only use these discourse markers when what you are about to say will, in fact, be obvious to the listener, otherwise it can sound arrogant.
If you fill time in your speech by saying ‘err’, you may be able to swap it for ‘now’, ‘so’, or ‘well’.
A discourse marker commonly overused by native speakers, particularly younger ones, is ‘like’. You might hear someone say: “So I was, like, at this, like, party. And my friend was, like, asking me to, like, dance.” Overusing ‘like’ can sound very boring and annoying to speakers of English, so it’s best avoided. Try and find an alternative, or even add just pauses to your conversation. It’ll make your spoken English sound much more sophisticated.

DUMMY SUBJECT

"There" as a dummy subject.

"It" as a dummy subject. 

We often use "it" as a dummy subject with adjectives and their complements: 

It’s important to wear a helmet whenever you do any dangerous sport. 

[real subject]: Wearing a helmet when you do any dangerous sport is important.

Dummy "it" and the verb "make"

It is the lack or gravity on the moon that makes it possible to leap 30 feet or more.  

The rise in demand for domestic goods causes local companies to increase production, which makes it necessary to hire more workers.  

ELLISION (ELLIPSIS)

EXPLETIVES

Often ignored, expletives may take up many adverbial syntactic functions. Pragmatically and semantically, they often serve as intensifiers, boosting the content of the clause they appear in.

• What the hell are you talking about?
• I didn't bloody well do that!
• You're freaking lying!
• You bloody well know that smoking's not allowed here!
• He got sodding killed.    

BRAINY QUOTES


FIXED EXPRESSIONS

Binomials 

Give and take (spirit of compromise), on and off (occasionally) , down and out (without house or money)

Marriage is give and take. You'd better give it to her or she'll take it anyway.

Expressions with "dummy it"

Dummy it is also used, equally vaguely, in other expressions:  Hold it!; Take it easy!; Can you make it to my party? 

Marriage is give and take. You'd better give it to her or she'll take it anyway.
Read more at: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/joey_adams_125261?src=t_give_and_tak

GERUND, THE

HOMONYMY (aka HOMOPHONES)
See homographs

INFINITIVE, THE 



INTERJECTIONS  

gesundheit interj

US, German (when [sb] sneezes: bless you!)

¡salud!, ¡Jesús!

MODIFIERS

Without modifiers, sentences would be no fun to read. Carefully chosen, well-placed modifiers allow you to depict situations with as much accuracy as words will allow.

NOUN MODIFIERS

1. We often use two nouns together to show that one thing is a part of something else: the village church; the car door; my coat pocket; London resident
2. We can use noun modifiers to show what something is made of: a gold watch; a leather purse; a metal box.
 
3. We often use noun modifiers with nouns ending in –er: an office worker; a jewellery maker; a potato peeler. 
 
4. We use measurements, age or value as noun modifiers: a two-minute rest; a five-thousand-euro platinum watch; a fifty-kilometre journey.

5. We often use nouns ending in -ing as noun modifiers: a shopping list; a swimming lesson; a walking holiday; a washing machine.
 
6. We often put two nouns together and readers/listeners have to work out what they mean: an ice bucket (= a bucket to keep ice in); an ice cube (= a cube made of ice); an ice breaker (= a ship which breaks ice); the ice age (= the time when much of the Earth was covered in ice).

7. Sometimes we find more than two nouns together: London office workers; grammar practice exercises.

Noun modifiers come after adjectives: the old newspaper seller; a tiring fifty-kilometre journey.

Hedges and Boosters

In our writing, we often indicate how confident we are about the claims we make. If we are doubtful that something is true, we may use words like perhaps or possibly. If we’re confident, we may say that something is clearly or obviously true. These words are called hedges and boosters. They affect the tone of our writing, and good writers use them effectively.

Hedging

To hedge means to waffle on an issue, to avoid committing oneself. Originally, the term referred to literally hiding in a bush or hedge.
Here is a list of words that are considered hedges: Perhaps, maybe, admittedly, might, possibly, likely, probably, predominantly, presumably, so to speak, seems, appears, may, think, to some extent, suggests, sometimes, often, around, roughly, fairly, usually, etc.

Observe the difference in tone when we use hedging:
No hedging: We vandalized school property.
With hedging: It’s possible that we may have vandalized school property.

In this example, hedging is merely a strategy for evasion. Indeed, if you’re not careful, hedging can hurt your writing. It’s easy to come across as timid and lacking in confidence. Hedging can also clutter up your sentences.
Yet, hedging has its benefits. Hedges suggest that the writer is careful, nuanced, and keen to avoid generalizations. A text that contains hedging is an open text, a text that invites debate and further research.

Boosting

If hedges express doubt, boosters demonstrate confidence.

Here are some examples of common boosting words: certainly, indeed, always, obviously, undoubtedly, in fact, clearly, actually, conclusively, definitely, evidently.

The danger with boosters is that they can make you seem cocky and pompous. However, if you use them sparingly they can convey the right amount of self-assurance. The selective use of boosters will convince your reader that you know your stuff and are an expert in your field.

KINDS OF MODIFIERS

Amplifiers (Maximizers & Boosters) and Downtoners (Approximators, compromisers, Diminishers, and Minimizers)

intensifiers, moderators and diminishers are scalar modifiers.

1. AMPLIFIERS

1.1 Maximizers: With strong adjectives, we normally use intensifiers like: absolutely, utterly entirely, completely, particularly, exceptionally, really, quite, totally, perfectly: The film was absolutely awful; He was an exceptionally brilliant child; The food smelled really disgusting.

1.2. Boosters (Intensifiers)

We use words like very, really and extremely to make adjectives stronger: It's a very interesting story; Everyone was very excited; It's a really interesting story; Everyone was extremely excited.

We call these words intensifiers. Other intensifiers are: amazingly, exceptionally, incredibly, particularly, remarkably, unusually, immensely.

We also use enough to say more about an adjective, but enough comes after its adjective:
If you are seventeen, you are old enough to drive a car; I can't wear those shoes. They're not big enough.

Intensifiers with particular adjectives

Some intensifiers go with particular adjectives depending on the meaning of the adjective:
I'm afraid your wife is dangerously ill; The engine was dangerously hot; The car was seriously damaged; Fortunately none of the passengers was seriously hurt.
 
Some intensifiers go with particular adjectives. For example, we use the intensifier highly with the adjectives successful, intelligent, likely and unlikely: He was highly intelligent; She’s a highly successful businesswoman.
but we do NOT say: We had a highly tasty meal.; That is a highly good idea.

We use the intensifier bitterly with the adjectives disappointed, unhappy and cold: I was bitterly unhappy at school; We were bitterly disappointed to lose the match; It can get bitterly cold in winter.

You need to use your dictionary to find which nouns these intensifiers go with.

Intensifiers with comparatives and superlatives

We use these words and phrases as intensifiers with comparative adjectives: much, far, a lot, quite a lot, a great deal, a good deal, a good bit, a fair bit: He is much older than me; New York is a lot bigger than Boston.

We use much and far as intensifiers with comparative adjectives in front of a noun:
France is a much bigger country than Britain; He is a far better player than Ronaldo.
We use these words as intensifiers with superlative adjectives: easily, by far, much: The blue whale is easily the biggest animal in the world; This car was by far the most expensive.

Adjectives as intensifiers

We use some adjectives as intensifiers with nouns: absolute, complete, total, perfect, real, utter. We say: He's a complete idiot; They were talking utter nonsense.

EXAMPLES

I don't see myself as extremely handsome. I just figure I can charm you into liking me. (US, inf. with clause, that: reckon, think, guess)

You can really only enjoy life when you're extremely busy.
Read more at: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/josephine_de_la_baume_541861

You can really only enjoy life when you're extremely busy.

This 'millennials' marketing term is utter nonsense! It’s simply not true that age defines people, it’s mindset. Don’t believe me? Go to a music festival. Go to the Proms. Go to a play. Go to a food festival. The audiences are all multi-aged, all there with a shared passion.  

If I got too famous, I'd just quit acting, but I think it's highly unlikely I'm going to get really famous.

It is highly likely that you have suffered with some form of acne (spots, pimples) throughout your life, most commonly during teenage years.

Britain’s prime minister said on Monday that it was “highly likely” that Moscow was to blame for the poisoning of a former Russian spy

I don't see myself as extremely handsome. I just figure I can charm you into liking me.
Read more at: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/wesley_snipes_434248

2. Downtoners / Moderators (Approximators, compromisers, diminishers, and minimizers)

2.1. Approximators; nearly, virtually ...

2.2.Compromisers: fairly, pretty, rather ...

2.3. Diminishers: slightly, a little, a bit, and somewhat. Diminishers typically combine with adjectives which have a negative content, e.g. tired, expensive,. difficult. Their function is to attenuate this

2.4. Minimizers: Hardly, scarcely ...

EXAMPLES 

Obesity is a problem that nearly every nation in the world is facing, but there is much that we can do to fix it.

Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if you want to test a man's character, give him power.

Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if you want to test a man's character, give him power.
Read more at: https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/abraham_lincoln_101343

Dangling-modifier clauses

As an adjunct, a modifier clause is normally at the beginning or the end of a sentence, and usually attached to the subject of the main clause, as in "Walking down the street (clause), the man (subject) saw the beautiful trees (object)." However, when the subject is missing or the clause attaches itself to another object in a sentence, the clause is seemingly "hanging" on nothing or on an entirely inappropriate noun. It thus "dangles", as in these sentences: Walking down Main Street, the trees were beautiful. Reaching the station, the sun came out.


PARTICIPLES

Participial phrases

PHRASAL VERBS

PHRASAL NOUNS (From phrasal verbs)

PHRASAL ADJECTIVES (From phrasal verbs)

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
See collocations

PRONUNCIATION (STRESS)

Pronunciation changes.
Reduced vowels (schwa) in a,e,i,o,u,and y.

SHORT ANSWERS

SHORTENING (BLENDING, CONTRACTION AND ABBREVIATION) 

SLANG

Slang is language (words, phrases, and usages) of an informal register that members of particular in-groups favor (over a standard language) in order to establish group identity, exclude outsiders, or both.
no-brainer ([sth] simple or obvious)

It's a no-brainer for me that at some point our cars will have the ability to drive themselves.


STRUCTURES

"IT" SENTENCES

SUBJUNCTIVE, THE 

"THERE BE" SENTENCES

VERBALS

Verbal nouns (gerundial nouns)

Verbal adjectives (gerundial adjectives)

I had a friend who worked at a hospice, and he said people in their final moments don't discuss their successes, awards or what books they wrote or what they accomplished. They only talk about their loves and their regrets, and I think that's very telling. Brad Pitt

I think it's very telling the way someone talks about their past relationships and the people that they chose to spend that time with. Let's talk about exes, baby!